--- name: sap-abap-94f55878de33 description: | Comprehensive ABAP development skill for SAP systems. Use when writing ABAP code, working with internal tables, structures, ABAP SQL, object-oriented programming, RAP (RESTful Application Programming Model), CDS views, EML statements, ABAP Cloud development, string processing, dynamic programming, RTTI/RTTC, field symbols, data references, exception handling, or ABAP unit testing. Covers both classic ABAP and modern ABAP for Cloud Development patterns. license: GPL-3.0 metadata: maintainer: "Eduard Jiglau" maintainer_email: "hello@sap-ai-skills.com" website: "https://sap-ai-skills.com" version: "2.4.1" last_verified: "2026-04-02" abap_release: "7.40 SP08+ / 7.50+ / ABAP Cloud" sources: - "https://help.sap.com/doc/abapdocu_latest_index_htm/latest/en-US/index.htm" - "https://github.com/SAP-samples/abap-cheat-sheets" --- # SAP ABAP Development Skill ## Related Skills - **sap-abap-cds**: Use when developing CDS views for ABAP-backed Fiori applications or defining data models with annotations - **sap-btp-cloud-platform**: Use when working with ABAP Environment on BTP or deploying ABAP applications to the cloud - **sap-cap-capire**: Use when connecting ABAP systems with CAP applications or integrating with OData services - **sap-fiori-tools**: Use when building Fiori applications with ABAP backends or consuming OData services from ABAP systems - **sap-api-style**: Use when documenting ABAP APIs or following SAP API documentation standards ## When to Use This Skill Use this skill when writing or reviewing ABAP code, modernizing classic ABAP to ABAP Cloud-compatible patterns, working with RAP or EML, implementing ABAP SQL, designing unit tests, or troubleshooting language/runtime behavior across supported ABAP releases. ## Version Compatibility This skill covers ABAP syntax from **7.40 SP08** through **ABAP Cloud**. Features requiring a higher release are annotated with inline comments in code examples using the format `" [7.xx+]` or noted in reference files. The table below summarizes the key version boundaries. | Feature | 7.40 SP02 | 7.40 SP05 | 7.40 SP08 | 7.50 | 7.51 | 7.52 | 7.54 | |---------|:---------:|:---------:|:---------:|:----:|:----:|:----:|:----:| | Inline declarations `DATA(...)` | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | | Constructor operators (VALUE, NEW, CONV, COND, SWITCH, REF, EXACT, CAST) | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | | Table expressions `itab[...]` | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | | String templates | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | | `WITH EMPTY KEY` | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | | `line_exists()`, `line_index()` | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | | ABAP SQL: `@` host variables | | x | x | x | x | x | x | | ABAP SQL: comma-separated lists | | x | x | x | x | x | x | | ABAP SQL: SQL expressions in SELECT | | x | x | x | x | x | x | | `CORRESPONDING` operator | | x | x | x | x | x | x | | Table comprehensions (`FOR`) | | x | x | x | x | x | x | | `LET` expressions | | x | x | x | x | x | x | | `REDUCE` operator | | | x | x | x | x | x | | `FILTER` operator | | | x | x | x | x | x | | `BASE` addition | | | x | x | x | x | x | | `LOOP AT ... GROUP BY` | | | x | x | x | x | x | | ABAP SQL: `dbtab~*` in SELECT | | | x | x | x | x | x | | ABAP SQL: `RIGHT OUTER JOIN` | | x | x | x | x | x | x | | CDS views with parameters | | | x | x | x | x | x | | **`FINAL(...)` inline declaration** | | | | x | x | x | x | | **Host expressions `@( expr )`** | | | | x | x | x | x | | **`UNION` in SELECT** | | | | x | x | x | x | | **`IS INSTANCE OF` / `CASE TYPE OF`** | | | | x | x | x | x | | **`int8` type** | | | | x | x | x | x | | **CDS table functions** | | | | x | x | x | x | | **CDS access control (implicit)** | | | | x | x | x | x | | **`$session.user/client/system_language`** | | | | x | x | x | x | | **Test seams (`TEST-SEAM`)** | | | | x | x | x | x | | **Common Table Expressions (`WITH`)** | | | | | x | x | x | | **`OFFSET` in SELECT** | | | | | x | x | x | | **`UPPER`/`LOWER` in CDS** | | | | | x | x | x | | **Enumerated types** | | | | | x | x | x | | **Internal tables as data source `FROM @itab`** | | | | | | x | x | | **`WITH PRIVILEGED ACCESS`** | | | | | | x | x | | **`utclong` type and functions** | | | | | | | x | **On a 7.40 system**: Replace any `FINAL(...)` with `DATA(...)`, and avoid 7.50+ features marked in bold above. Most modern ABAP syntax (VALUE, NEW, CONV, inline declarations, table expressions, REDUCE, FILTER, GROUP BY) is available since 7.40 SP08. ## Table of Contents - [Version Compatibility](#version-compatibility) - [Quick Reference](#quick-reference) - [Bundled Resources](#bundled-resources) - [Common Patterns](#common-patterns) - [Error Catalog](#error-catalog) - [Performance Tips](#performance-tips) - [Source Documentation](#source-documentation) ## Quick Reference ### Data Types and Declarations ```abap " Elementary types DATA num TYPE i VALUE 123. DATA txt TYPE string VALUE `Hello`. DATA flag TYPE abap_bool VALUE abap_true. " Inline declarations DATA(result) = some_method( ). FINAL(immutable) = `constant value`. " [7.50+] Use DATA(...) on 7.40 " Structures DATA: BEGIN OF struc, id TYPE i, name TYPE string, END OF struc. " Internal tables DATA itab TYPE TABLE OF string WITH EMPTY KEY. DATA sorted_tab TYPE SORTED TABLE OF struct WITH UNIQUE KEY id. DATA hashed_tab TYPE HASHED TABLE OF struct WITH UNIQUE KEY id. ``` ### Internal Tables - Essential Operations ```abap " Create with VALUE itab = VALUE #( ( col1 = 1 col2 = `a` ) ( col1 = 2 col2 = `b` ) ). " Read operations DATA(line) = itab[ 1 ]. " By index DATA(line2) = itab[ col1 = 1 ]. " By key READ TABLE itab INTO wa INDEX 1. READ TABLE itab ASSIGNING FIELD-SYMBOL() WITH KEY col1 = 1. " Modify operations MODIFY TABLE itab FROM VALUE #( col1 = 1 col2 = `updated` ). itab[ 1 ]-col2 = `changed`. " Loop processing LOOP AT itab ASSIGNING FIELD-SYMBOL(). -col2 = to_upper( -col2 ). ENDLOOP. " Delete DELETE itab WHERE col1 > 5. DELETE TABLE itab FROM VALUE #( col1 = 1 ). ``` ### ABAP SQL Essentials ```abap " SELECT into table SELECT * FROM dbtab INTO TABLE @DATA(result_tab). " @ syntax: 7.40 SP05+ " SELECT with conditions SELECT carrid, connid, fldate " comma syntax: 7.40 SP05+ FROM zdemo_abap_fli WHERE carrid = 'LH' INTO TABLE @DATA(flights). " Aggregate functions SELECT carrid, COUNT(*) AS cnt, AVG( price ) AS avg_price FROM zdemo_abap_fli GROUP BY carrid INTO TABLE @DATA(stats). " JOIN operations SELECT a~carrid, a~connid, b~carrname FROM zdemo_abap_fli AS a INNER JOIN zdemo_abap_carr AS b ON a~carrid = b~carrid INTO TABLE @DATA(joined). " Modification statements INSERT dbtab FROM @struc. UPDATE dbtab FROM @struc. MODIFY dbtab FROM TABLE @itab. DELETE FROM dbtab WHERE condition. ``` ### Constructor Expressions ```abap " VALUE - structures and tables DATA(struc) = VALUE struct_type( comp1 = 1 comp2 = `text` ). DATA(itab) = VALUE itab_type( ( a = 1 ) ( a = 2 ) ( a = 3 ) ). " NEW - create instances DATA(dref) = NEW i( 123 ). DATA(oref) = NEW zcl_my_class( param = value ). " CORRESPONDING - structure/table mapping target = CORRESPONDING #( source ). target = CORRESPONDING #( source MAPPING target_field = source_field ). " COND/SWITCH - conditional values DATA(text) = COND string( WHEN flag = abap_true THEN `Yes` ELSE `No` ). DATA(result) = SWITCH #( code WHEN 1 THEN `A` WHEN 2 THEN `B` ELSE `X` ). " CONV - type conversion DATA(dec) = CONV decfloat34( 1 / 3 ). " FILTER - table filtering DATA(filtered) = FILTER #( itab WHERE status = 'A' ). " REDUCE - aggregation DATA(sum) = REDUCE i( INIT s = 0 FOR wa IN itab NEXT s = s + wa-amount ). ``` ### Object-Oriented ABAP ```abap " Class definition CLASS zcl_example DEFINITION PUBLIC FINAL CREATE PUBLIC. PUBLIC SECTION. METHODS constructor IMPORTING iv_name TYPE string. METHODS get_name RETURNING VALUE(rv_name) TYPE string. CLASS-METHODS factory RETURNING VALUE(ro_instance) TYPE REF TO zcl_example. PRIVATE SECTION. DATA mv_name TYPE string. ENDCLASS. CLASS zcl_example IMPLEMENTATION. METHOD constructor. mv_name = iv_name. ENDMETHOD. METHOD get_name. rv_name = mv_name. ENDMETHOD. METHOD factory. ro_instance = NEW #( `Default` ). ENDMETHOD. ENDCLASS. " Interface implementation CLASS zcl_impl DEFINITION PUBLIC. PUBLIC SECTION. INTERFACES zif_my_interface. ENDCLASS. ``` ### Exception Handling ```abap TRY. DATA(result) = risky_operation( ). CATCH cx_sy_zerodivide INTO DATA(exc). DATA(msg) = exc->get_text( ). CATCH cx_root INTO DATA(any_exc). " Handle any exception CLEANUP. " Cleanup code ENDTRY. " Raising exceptions RAISE EXCEPTION TYPE zcx_my_exception EXPORTING textid = zcx_my_exception=>error_occurred. " With COND/SWITCH DATA(val) = COND #( WHEN valid THEN result ELSE THROW zcx_my_exception( ) ). ``` ### String Processing ```abap " Concatenation DATA(full) = first && ` ` && last. txt &&= ` appended`. " String templates DATA(msg) = |Name: { name }, Date: { date DATE = ISO }|. " Functions DATA(upper) = to_upper( text ). DATA(len) = strlen( text ). DATA(found) = find( val = text sub = `search` ). DATA(replaced) = replace( val = text sub = `old` with = `new` occ = 0 ). DATA(parts) = segment( val = text index = 2 sep = `,` ). " FIND/REPLACE statements FIND ALL OCCURRENCES OF pattern IN text RESULTS DATA(matches). REPLACE ALL OCCURRENCES OF old IN text WITH new. ``` ### Dynamic Programming ```abap " Field symbols FIELD-SYMBOLS TYPE any. ASSIGN struct-component TO . ASSIGN struct-(comp_name) TO . " Dynamic component " Data references DATA dref TYPE REF TO data. dref = REF #( variable ). CREATE DATA dref TYPE (type_name). dref->* = value. " RTTI - Get type information DATA(tdo) = cl_abap_typedescr=>describe_by_data( dobj ). DATA(components) = CAST cl_abap_structdescr( tdo )->components. " RTTC - Create types dynamically DATA(elem_type) = cl_abap_elemdescr=>get_string( ). CREATE DATA dref TYPE HANDLE elem_type. ``` --- ## Bundled Resources This skill includes 28 comprehensive reference files covering all aspects of ABAP development: ### Related Skills - **sap-abap-cds**: For CDS view development and ABAP Cloud data modeling - **sap-btp-cloud-platform**: For ABAP Environment setup and BTP deployment - **sap-cap-capire**: For CAP service integration and ABAP system connections - **sap-fiori-tools**: For Fiori application development with ABAP backends - **sap-api-style**: For API documentation standards and best practices ### Quick Access - **Reference Guide**: `references/skill-reference-guide.md` - Complete guide to all reference files - **Internal Tables**: `references/internal-tables.md` - Complete table operations - **ABAP SQL**: `references/abap-sql.md` - Comprehensive SQL reference - **Object Orientation**: `references/object-orientation.md` - Classes and interfaces ### Development Topics - `references/constructor-expressions.md` - VALUE, NEW, COND, REDUCE - `references/rap-eml.md` - RAP and EML operations - `references/cds-views.md` - CDS view development - `references/string-processing.md` - String functions and regex - `references/unit-testing.md` - ABAP Unit framework - `references/performance.md` - Optimization techniques - ... and 18 more specialized references --- ## Common Patterns ### Safe Table Access (Avoid Exceptions) ```abap " Using VALUE with OPTIONAL DATA(line) = VALUE #( itab[ key = value ] OPTIONAL ). " Using VALUE with DEFAULT DATA(line) = VALUE #( itab[ 1 ] DEFAULT VALUE #( ) ). " Check before access IF line_exists( itab[ key = value ] ). DATA(line) = itab[ key = value ]. ENDIF. ``` ### Functional Method Chaining ```abap DATA(result) = NEW zcl_builder( ) ->set_name( `Test` ) ->set_value( 123 ) ->build( ). ``` ### FOR Iteration Expressions ```abap " Transform table DATA(transformed) = VALUE itab_type( FOR wa IN source_itab ( id = wa-id name = to_upper( wa-name ) ) ). " With WHERE DATA(filtered) = VALUE itab_type( FOR wa IN source WHERE ( status = 'A' ) ( wa ) ). " With INDEX INTO DATA(numbered) = VALUE itab_type( FOR wa IN source INDEX INTO idx ( line_no = idx data = wa ) ). ``` ### ABAP Cloud Compatibility ```abap " Use released APIs only DATA(uuid) = cl_system_uuid=>create_uuid_x16_static( ). DATA(date) = xco_cp=>sy->date( )->as( xco_cp_time=>format->iso_8601_extended )->value. DATA(time) = xco_cp=>sy->time( )->as( xco_cp_time=>format->iso_8601_extended )->value. " Output in cloud (if_oo_adt_classrun) out->write( result ). " Avoid: sy-datum, sy-uzeit, DESCRIBE TABLE, WRITE, MOVE...TO ``` ### ABAP 7.40 Compatibility When targeting ABAP 7.40 systems, replace 7.50+ syntax with these patterns: ```abap " Instead of FINAL (7.50+): FINAL(value) = `constant`. " 7.50+ DATA(value) = `constant`. " 7.40 compatible " Instead of host expressions (7.50+): SELECT * FROM dbtab WHERE col = @( lv_val ). " 7.50+ SELECT * FROM dbtab WHERE col = @lv_val. " 7.40 compatible " Instead of UNION (7.50+): SELECT a FROM tab1 UNION SELECT a FROM tab2. " 7.50+ " Use two separate SELECTs on 7.40 and combine in ABAP: SELECT a FROM tab1 INTO TABLE @DATA(r1). SELECT a FROM tab2 INTO TABLE @DATA(r2). DATA(combined) = VALUE itab_type( FOR l1 IN r1 ( l1 ) FOR l2 IN r2 ( l2 ) ). " Instead of IS INSTANCE OF (7.50+): IF oref IS INSTANCE OF zcl_my_class. " 7.50+ " 7.40 alternative — use typed CAST with exception handling: TRY. DATA(lo) = CAST zcl_my_class( oref ). " 7.40+ CATCH cx_sy_move_cast_error. " oref is not compatible with zcl_my_class ENDTRY. " Instead of CTEs WITH (7.51+): WITH +cte AS ( SELECT ... ) SELECT ... " 7.51+ " Use subqueries or temporary tables on 7.40 ``` --- ## Error Catalog ### CX_SY_ITAB_LINE_NOT_FOUND **Cause**: Table expression access to non-existent line **Solution**: Use OPTIONAL, DEFAULT, or check with `line_exists( )` ### CX_SY_ZERODIVIDE **Cause**: Division by zero **Solution**: Check divisor before operation ### CX_SY_RANGE_OUT_OF_BOUNDS **Cause**: Invalid substring access or array bounds **Solution**: Validate offset and length before access ### CX_SY_CONVERSION_NO_NUMBER **Cause**: String cannot be converted to number **Solution**: Validate input format before conversion ### CX_SY_REF_IS_INITIAL **Cause**: Dereferencing unbound reference **Solution**: Check `IS BOUND` before dereferencing --- ## Performance Tips 1. **Use SORTED/HASHED tables** for frequent key access 2. **Prefer field symbols** over work areas in loops for modification 3. **Use PACKAGE SIZE** for large SELECT results 4. **Avoid SELECT in loops** - use FOR ALL ENTRIES or JOINs 5. **Use secondary keys** for different access patterns 6. **Minimize CORRESPONDING** calls - explicit assignments are faster --- ## Source Documentation All content based on SAP official ABAP Cheat Sheets: - Repository: [https://github.com/SAP-samples/abap-cheat-sheets](https://github.com/SAP-samples/abap-cheat-sheets) - SAP Help (latest): [https://help.sap.com/doc/abapdocu_latest_index_htm/latest/en-US/index.htm](https://help.sap.com/doc/abapdocu_latest_index_htm/latest/en-US/index.htm) - SAP Help (7.40): [https://help.sap.com/doc/abapdocu_740_index_htm/7.40/en-US/index.htm](https://help.sap.com/doc/abapdocu_740_index_htm/7.40/en-US/index.htm) - ABAP Release News: [https://github.com/SAP-samples/abap-cheat-sheets/blob/main/33_ABAP_Release_News.md](https://github.com/SAP-samples/abap-cheat-sheets/blob/main/33_ABAP_Release_News.md) --- Source attribution: secondsky Original project: https://github.com/secondsky/sap-skills/blob/652a861d3ed422b71f01c8805f9ec03b14017cd8/plugins/sap-abap/skills/sap-abap/SKILL.md License: GPL-3.0-only License information: https://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-3.0.html Original upstream instructions; downloaded from Dave AI. ## Upstream license notice GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE Version 3, 29 June 2007 Copyright (C) 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 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If additional permissions apply only to part of the Program, that part may be used separately under those permissions, but the entire Program remains governed by this License without regard to the additional permissions. When you convey a copy of a covered work, you may at your option remove any additional permissions from that copy, or from any part of it. (Additional permissions may be written to require their own removal in certain cases when you modify the work.) You may place additional permissions on material, added by you to a covered work, for which you have or can give appropriate copyright permission. 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Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the notice. Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently reinstated, you do not qualify to receive new licenses for the same material under section 10. 9. Acceptance Not Required for Having Copies. You are not required to accept this License in order to receive or run a copy of the Program. Ancillary propagation of a covered work occurring solely as a consequence of using peer-to-peer transmission to receive a copy likewise does not require acceptance. 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You may not convey a covered work if you are a party to an arrangement with a third party that is in the business of distributing software, under which you make payment to the third party based on the extent of your activity of conveying the work, and under which the third party grants, to any of the parties who would receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent license (a) in connection with copies of the covered work conveyed by you (or copies made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in connection with specific products or compilations that contain the covered work, unless you entered into that arrangement, or that patent license was granted, prior to 28 March 2007. Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting any implied license or other defenses to infringement that may otherwise be available to you under applicable patent law. 12. No Surrender of Others' Freedom. If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot convey a covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you may not convey it at all. For example, if you agree to terms that obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying from those to whom you convey the Program, the only way you could satisfy both those terms and this License would be to refrain entirely from conveying the Program. 13. Use with the GNU Affero General Public License. Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have permission to link or combine any covered work with a work licensed under version 3 of the GNU Affero General Public License into a single combined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this License will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work, but the special requirements of the GNU Affero General Public License, section 13, concerning interaction through a network will apply to the combination as such. 14. Revised Versions of this License. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies that a certain numbered version of the GNU General Public License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that numbered version or of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. 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IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR CONVEYS THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16. If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided above cannot be given local legal effect according to their terms, reviewing courts shall apply local law that most closely approximates an absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection with the Program, unless a warranty or assumption of liability accompanies a copy of the Program in return for a fee. END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms. To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively state the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the "copyright" line and a pointer to where the full notice is found. Copyright (C) This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this program. If not, see . Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail. If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short notice like this when it starts in an interactive mode: Copyright (C) This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'. This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions; type `show c' for details. The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, your program's commands might be different; for a GUI interface, you would use an "about box". You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or school, if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the program, if necessary. For more information on this, and how to apply and follow the GNU GPL, see . The GNU General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License. But first, please read . # Dave AI resource metadata Creator / publisher: secondsky Original project: https://github.com/secondsky/sap-skills/blob/652a861d3ed422b71f01c8805f9ec03b14017cd8/plugins/sap-abap/skills/sap-abap/SKILL.md Attribution basis: Source repository record Fields of work: Development & Engineering, Product Management Roles: Backend Developer, Data Engineer, ML / AI Engineer, Product Manager, Technical Product Manager Specialties: API, Backend, Database, Design, DevOps, Word Documents, Frontend, Git, Testing Tools: Sap Country applicability: Country not specified Classification basis: Source catalog labels Instruction SHA-256: ed03c370cd827f3cd290fbe5437c54d58c32e6e17b864d1e1eb510e35384ecdc